Toilet Facilities in All Schools

Toilet Facilities in All Schools ——————————————————————————– Toilet Facilities in All Schools Encourage and contribute to developing the necessary partnership between the state of Maharashtra and the Government of India’s programmes to establish toilet facilities in all schools. The Indian government has launched a focused campaign to increase the households in the country that have toilets by 2010. Additionally, we will target the urgent need for separate toilets for boys and girls, together with a hand-washing facility in every school in Maharashtra. Name: Toilet Facilities in all Schools Status: Theme: Region and Country: Maharashtra, India Partners: Beneficiaries: Funding Need: Budget: Duration: Contact: Programme Activities: Each year two million children die from diarrhoeal diseases, making it the second most serious killer of children under the age of five. The main source of diarrhoeal infection is human excreta. It seems clear therefore, that human excreta should be managed as a potentially dangerous material. The construction of latrines is a relatively simple technology that may be used to control the spread of infectious diseases. Studies have shown that latrine coverage has to reach 90% of a population to have an impact on community health. In Maharashtra, 85% of rural households and 54% of all households have no access at all to a toilet facility. While the Indian government is making great strides in the availability of toilets, this programme looks to increase advocacy and education necessary to convince people to use the toilets, and to create separate male and female toilets in schools together with hand-washing facilities. It is important to gain political support and government commitment to the programme. A mix of mass media and interpersonal communication is the best way to deliver the key programme messages. Demonstration sites for the selected technologies are important, as is the training of local people in operation and maintenance methods. It is also necessary to provide reasonable funding options and incentives to make the technology affordable. Intended Results: Latrine facilities, separate for boys and girls, with a hand-washing facility will be established in all schools. A latrine promotion programme will teach students and the local people about why and how to use the latrines through community involvement, radio messages, and other social marketing strategies. The construction of this latrine system in schools will be used to control the spread of infectious diseases, and promote toilet usage at a young age to school children to convey proper usage and knowledge at home. Programme Management and Implementation: This programme has numerous phases of implementation. Background Data: The first step is to become familiar with the local area and school systems. The acceptance of latrines varies from culture to culture and it is important to understand where the areas of potential resistance lie so as to direct promotion efforts efficiently. Conducting interviews can help to determine users likes and dislikes as well as identify current hygiene practices. This information is essential to the planning of a sanitation promotion program that will match the customs and attitudes of the users. Planning Phase: The information gathered during the background study of the local people can be used to plan a custom tailored sanitation promotion program. The initial lanning phase should consist of selection of the key messages to be promoted and a matching appropriate technology. The key messages need to be based on existing ideas, because it is much harder to introduce radical or rapid changes in a population. The core ideas should be kept simple and to the point. It is easiest for people to grasp a few straightforward ideas, rather than a long list of suggested improvements. The type of latrine selected should be low-cost, appropriate for the geographic area, and match with existing customs of anal cleaning and defecation habits as much as possible. Once the key messages and technology have been selected a marketing approach must be developed. Recent efforts in promotion programs related to socio-cultural issues have focused on social marketing techniques. Social marketing uses the approaches of economics to advance social change. Social marketing advocates a demand driven approach to sanitation. Therefore, a successful sanitation program needs to create a demand for latrines. This is accomplished by offering affordable technology, but also by increasing the social desirability of latrines. Studies have shown that the reasons people want latrines are less for health concerns than for social status, privacy, comfort and convenience (WHO, 2000). It should therefore, be the goal of any sanitation program to foster these feelings to increase the social demand for latrines. Since social status is one of the driving factors in latrine demand, it is important to recruit prominent people and community leaders to the cause of sanitation. Sanitation promotion by these leaders will increase the acceptability of latrines (Ikin, 1994). While the role of community leaders may be important, so is the participation of the average community member. Community based efforts have been shown to be more effective than external intervention (WHO, 2000). The marketing approach must select key populations within the community to act as agents of change and use appropriate channels of communication to reach the target audience. Implementation: Implementing a latrine promotion program requires outreach and education of the masses, as well as, cost reduction strategies. It is also important to consider the interactions of any institutions involved in the project schools, government, and construction company) and the issue of sustainability. The most effective method of outreach is person-to-person visits (UNICEF, 2002). These visits are used to share hygiene and technical information, as well as encourage sanitary behaviour changes. Other methods, such as radio and television programming, discussion groups, and school curriculum' s, may be incorporated depending on the community reception of these types of media. Radio or television programming has worked well in areas with high coverage by these media. Broadcast programming is most effective when done in the native language. Discussion groups are a good way to encourage community participation in the project. They may also be a way to disperse technical information to a large population through demonstration sites. Introducing hygiene curriculum in the local schools works well in areas of high school attendance and reliable school systems. Children can act as powerful agents of change when they practice proper hygienic behaviours in the classroom and then bring these behaviours home with them (UNICEF, 2002). It is also hoped that children will retain these positive traits into adulthood. A significant factor to consider in any sanitation program is the cost to the new technology. High cost is the number one deterrent for the spread of latrine construction (Cotton, 1998). It is important to select low-cost technologies for sanitation projects in the developing world. Many sanitation promotion programs rely on the support of both the local government and NGO. Whenever there are multiple institutions working together on a project it is important to have a clear structure of goals and methods of implementation. Care must be taken not to duplicate efforts or damage the working relationship between the partner institutions. Where large institutions are involved it is helpful to establish community contacts to ensure effective communication from the field to the institute headquarters. Although the introduction of improved sanitation services may be difficult, ensuring the sustainability of these services may be even more so. The most important step towards sustainability is the involvement of the community from the start of the project. People, students, and the school must learn to take ownership and pride in their latrines. Social marketing strategies can aid in the increased acceptance and demand for latrines. School programming is also an important step towards educating the future of sanitary behaviour. Another tactic is to train local artisans to construct and maintain latrines. These artisans may build small businesses to market their skills, thus increasing the economy drive behind latrine use. Above all the program must be adaptable and flexible enough to change with the needs and demands of the people being served. Programme Monitoring and Evaluation: Programme monitoring and evaluation will occur to oversee the instalment of toilets in schools, how many children are using the toilets, and possible reasons for not using the toilets. Community attitudes will also be monitored and surveys will be conducted to see if toilet usage increases in surrounding school communities. Learning and Dissemination: Related Resources: Sanitation and hygiene promotion programs started in India in the 1980s with the support of UNICEF. The initial emphasis was on technical solutions, specifically the promotion of twin-pit pour-flush latrines. The government and UNICEF advocated the construction of these latrines as the national standard for cost-effective sanitation. However, the idea was never widely accepted and latrine coverage in rural areas remained less than 10 percent. The cost of latrine construction was considered too high and people saw little motivation for use. Between 1986-1987, UNICEF performed several micro-field studies to determine alternative methods to sanitation promotion. The results indicated that the lack of community involvement was detrimentally to the program. The studies also revealed several reasons behind people’s reluctance to use the new latrines. People avoided latrine use for fear of breaking it, or because they believed it more sanitary to defecate in the fields away from the house, or because they preferred to use the latrine as a storage facility. The high cost of the twin-pit pour-flush toilets was also often beyond the means of many poor communities. The results of these studies lead to a new approach in sanitation promotion in India in the 1990s. The new emphasis was on lower-cost latrines and sanitary behaviour changes. A community-based approach was used to promote behaviour change. Efforts were made to increase household visits, school programming and considerations for gender issues. Sanitation issues were linked with other health concerns in an attempt to increase motivation for latrine usage. A program evaluation in the mid 1990s indicated that person-to-person visited could be highly effective, but that 3-4 visits were required for every latrine installed. The labour costs associated with this method of promotion are therefore quite high. School programs were developed to teach children hygienic behaviours, including the use of a latrine. The hope is that the children will than bring these behaviours home with them, thereby acting as agents of change in their communities. The new promotion plan also stressed the role of women in sanitation and household hygiene management. Lack of proper sanitation facilities has traditionally been more detrimental to women than to men. Due to the lack of privacy, many women may wait until nightfall to relieve themselves, leading to serious health problems and kidney failure. The lack of sanitation facilities has also been a barrier to girls attending school. The restructuring of the sanitation promotion program has attempted to address these issues by including women in health discussions and the operation and maintenance of the new latrines. The key to sanitation promotion in India has been balancing the technical and social aspects of sanitation services. Since the introduction of community based promotion methods, rural India has seen sanitation coverage increase from nearly zero to 14% while total sanitation coverage increased to 31%. Community involvement and self-financing methods lead to the construction of more than 350,000 latrines in one county alone. An impact evaluation in 1999 showed consistently better excreta disposal practices in communities participating in the promotion programs. The study indicated that future sanitation promotion efforts should focus on social marketing techniques and community management of latrines.

Procedures in Making the Soap Out of Pineapple Peel Essay

Last month, I and my group decided to pick â€Å"Pineapple skin extract as soap† as our I.P title yet we are unaware of the things that might come our way. We are planning to conduct an experiment tomorrow using the procedures that we guess will work.We have separate procedures for our ingredients: For our pineapple skin extract 1)Cut the pineapple skin into one-inch squares with a sharp knife. 2)Put the pineapple skins in a pot. Add water until the skins are barely covered. 3)Cover the pot with a lid and put it on the stove at medium-high heat. Allow the water to boil for 20 minutes. 4)Remove the pot from the stove. Strain the mixture through a strainer. Discard the skins and put the liquid in a clean container. 5)Cover the container and keep it in the refrigerator. For our lye 1. Get the ingredients and equipments ready: You would need the following things to try your hand at making lye: two plastic buckets (a small one and a large one ? The small one should fit into the large one in such a way that liquid from the small one drips slowly into the large one); some fresh ash from burning hard wood (you can even burn some hard wood to get this); gallons of rain water and a handful of straw. Now to the step-by-step process: 2. Make a few holes in the small bucket. Better if the holes are tiny enough to allow only liquid stuff through. Check after you make holes by pouring some water through the bucket. 3. Now set the small bucket inside the large bucket. See to it that there is some space between the base of the small bucket and the large one. This is important as liquid should drip through holes drop by drop and not smudge the bottom of the small bucket. 4. Place the straw you have inside the small bucket and hide the holes with the straw. Lye water, when formed, will seep through the holes only through the straw. This would prevent other hard blocks of wood or ash from collecting directly into the large bucket. 5. Now place the wood ash above the straw and pour cold water over it. Ensure that the ash is above the straw and not directly near the holes. The straw base will act as a filter and prevent wood ash from flowing down with water. 6. As you pour the water slowly, you will see liquid lye dripping through the holes in the small bucket and getting collected in the large bucket. 7. Once all the water is poured onto ash, repeat the process with the liquid collected in the large bucket. Pour the collected lye solution onto the wood ash (above the straw) once again. Repeat and recycle the lye solution at least three times. This is done to concentrate the lye solution. 8. After repeating the process, you can collect the lye solution from the large bucket and store it in another plastic or wooden container and use it in soap making. Avoid metal utensils as it can result in increase in temperature of lye. 9. Before storing lye, test its strength. In olden days, people tested lye with fresh egg. If a fresh egg floats near the surface of the solution with a little lye water above it, your lye is of right strength. If the same egg drowned, your lye lacks strength. If the egg floated above the solution, then it is too strong. 10. If your lye lacks strength, add more wood ash and repeat the process with the same solution. If it is too strong, add water and check the strength with the egg again. You can keep adding water till you are certain that your lye is of the appropriate strength.

Mission Vision of Sturbock Cafe

Chic Boy Mission and Vision Statement Writing a mission statement for your business tells your colleagues, employees and customers what your business intends to do and how it will do it. The mission statement serves to describe the company in present terms and does this by describing measurable goals and objectives. A vision statement is very much like your mission statement except it outlines where the company would like to be in the future. The vision statement has more human value to it and describes how the company wishes to be perceived. These statements are simply that – statements.No need to get extremely elaborate, they should be succinct, interesting and smart. Mission Statement  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Vision Statement Present tense  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Future tense Lists overall goals  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Describes how it sees itself in the future How the organization will get there  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Lists where the organization wants to be Developing Your Mission & Vision Statement It’s helpful to answer these questions to guide you in developing your mission and vision statements.Mission Statement: 1. What does the company do today? 2. For whom does the company do it? 3. What is the benefit to the end user? Vision Statement: 1. What does the company want to do in the future? 2. When does the company want to do it by? 3. How does the company expect to do it? You should be able to turn these answers into a well-crafted mission and vision statement for your business. Here are some great examples of mission and vision statements: Boy Scouts of America Mission Statement The mission of the Boy Scouts of America is to prepare young people to make thical and moral choices over their lifetimes by instilling in them the values of the Scout Oath and Law. Vision Statement The Boy Scouts of America will prepare every eligible youth in America to become a responsible, participating citizen and leader who is guided by the Scout Oath and Law. Shell Mauritius Mission Statement To safely market and distribute energy and petrochemical products while offering innovative value added services. Vision Statement We make the difference through our people, a team of dedicated professionals, who value our customers, deliver on our promises and contribute to sustainable development.

Response papers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Response papers - Essay Example Being involved in sports as school children, athletes do not realize that emulating the big league is a useless, futile and expensive proposition, as there is no income and no media adulation. Parents' and society expectations take a serious toll on the athletes, with extreme peer pressure to succeed. This leads to suicides and depression in a very large number of school athletes, who lead their lives bearing the burden of expectations of their families and their school team coaches. In the article, Bissinger has explained in some detail the excesses that constitute a school sports system becoming an obsession. Although suicide and extreme emotional stress is talked about, a mention of the organizations and support groups who help these school kids would have not only exhibited the despair, but would have shown us the hope. Man is a social animal, and physical attractiveness is an important part of social interaction. The human baby is almost universally considered cute, as are the young of several other species. A case in point was Tai Shan the Panda, who generated an almost global wave of adoration when he was displayed in a zoo. Natalie Angier explains through an extensive range of examples, the advantages and the evolutionary need of being 'cute', whether for an animal, a human, or a product. The article explains the importance of humans finding their and other species' young cute as it evokes a desire of care-giving. Due to the physical vulnerability of human infants, evoking such a response in adults ensures their very survival. There are distinct physical traits in animals we find cute, such as forward facing eyes, a sideways walk and floppy ears, that we find appear enhanced and more prominent in children's' cartoon characters, at the cost of authenticity. The author cites evolutionary evidence and shows that humans are genetically hardwired to react positively to their young's need for care. Children's products all over the world exploit this uncontrollable charm in cute objects, by creating products that are found so by their target buyer. Everything from cars to dolls have been designed to evoke this emotion. The article does go into reasonable depth on the anthropological and psychological aspects of this perception, but could have additionally touched upon the potentially dangerous cosmetic surgeries that are performed all over the world to achieve attractiveness. The author could also have touched upon the distinction between feelings of care-giving and feelings of pity, as felt while looking at a malnourished child on TV. It will answer the question whether the feelings of adoration are stronger, or of pity. "Talk about editing" response paper Newspapers have served as a barometer of the times for more than a century, and the New York Times is an established name in daily newspapers, known all over the world for its objectivity and lucidity of style and content. An important part of the newspaper is the op-ed page, where anyone with an opinion and point of view on any topic may submit an article and have it printed. David Shipley's article explains in detail the process by which a submitted article is edited, including the importance of maintaining the purity of thought and the constant interaction of the editorial staff with the writer throughout the process. Editing starts with spelling and grammatical

Managing Financial Resources and Decisions Coursework

Managing Financial Resources and Decisions - Coursework Example Additional supply of funds in the capital market lowers this cost of borrowing. The cost of using loan stock and bank lending is expressed as a rate of interest. This interest rate is relatively high because it depends on the companys credit rating. The interest has to be paid whether or not the company makes a profit. Retained earnings are funds that are believed to cost nothing because it has no issue costs as the company just needs to set aside part of their profits. Government sources are normally free because they are part of the policy to develop the national economy,; however; there are some conditions that must be met. For instance, a company must be in the relevant industry and a specific location. Venture capitalists and angel investors usually require a high expected rate of return on their investments so as to compensate them for the high risk. As a result, the cost of obtaining such funds is usually very high. The cost of sales nd lease back arrangement is often the ongo ing lease payments. Each source of finance has a set of implication, for instance, for sources like bank lending and loan stock, the borrower is required to pay some amount of interest on the principal. In addition, they can be penalized for infractions of the written contract between them, for instance, late payments. With retained earnings, the company will have to forgo dividend payments that may affect its image in the eyes of investors as they go for companies that pay regular dividends. As for government sources, the company will be under government control. Finally, with venture capital and angel investors, the company will be penalized for infracting written agreements between them and the private investors c) A highly geared organization has a high proportion of debt compared to equity. They, therefore, need to borrow from the capital market in order to balance the dent and equity proportions. A low geared

Recruitment and Human Resource Management Essay

Recruitment and Human Resource Management - Essay Example The human resource management team then analyses these forms before inviting the qualified candidates for interviewing.   After the selection of the suitable candidate from the interviewees, the procedure of induction follows. Induction is a process that aims at familiarizing an employee with the organization’s processes and the nature of the job. A good induction process should be open and interactive, to make the new employee be acquainted with co-workers easily. The process should also be relevant and specific on the standards and rules that guide the operational framework of an organization. The process should be safe and considerate on the employee’s working conditions.   The period that the induction process takes depends on the size, nature, and standards of the organization and the job. The process, though not formal, is a good way to ensure that an employee blends into the organization comfortably. The employee will first meet and talk with fellow colleague s. This interaction process should be friendly and focused on the experiences of the new colleague. This process should be open to questions, and subsequent discussions on the nature of the organization.  Thereafter, the new employee is introduced to the rules of the organization. Organizational storytelling is a good way of instilling the organization’s principles to the employees (Taylor, 2011). The value of the hospitality industry in the UK is significant to the economic growth of the UK.

Reaction Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reaction Paper - Essay Example On the other hand, its placement within the Kyper belt makes it part of other debris floating in this space. Its long distance away from Sun and the estimated 560 year orbiting time, also demarcates it from the eight well-established planets. Fascinated I was with Dr. Brown’s free-flowing narrative of the events in the lead-up to the eventual discovery, I was also impressed by his mastery of scientific technique and methodology. The way he explained how digital cameras and high-power telescope were used for the project was quite lucid. Toward the end of the lecture, Dr. Brown expressed his displeasure about the tendency among the community of astronomers to give importance to precise definitions of what a planet is. As per the newly coined definition of a planet, both Eris and Pluto do not qualify, thereby leaving the number of recognized solar planets to be eight (stopping with Neptune). Upon hearing this decision to drop Pluto and Eris from the class of planets, I was a tad disappointed. But as Dr. Brown explains at length, such rigid formalizations go against the spirit of astronomy and cosmology. I agree with his view that it is the concept and description which matters, not narrow definitions. Lecture Notes: Lecture organized by Astronomical society - Dr.

Poem Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Poem - Essay Example Dickinson’s use of symbolism and personification in describing her journey, or rather, her encounter with death helps bring out her point of view. Dickinson’s use of symbolism shows during the drive in the chariot which symbolizes her journey from the living to the dead. She passes from childhood (â€Å"We passed the school, where Children strove†) to maturity (â€Å"We passed the Fields of Gazing Grain†) then to her time of dying (â€Å"We passed the Setting Sun†) then eventually to her grave (â€Å"A Swelling of the Ground†). Notably, there is the repetition of the word â€Å"passed† which brings out the theme of symbolism. In stanzas three and four, Dickinson uses the word four times as the carriage symbolically moves down the path of life from the children and the grain, which are both living to the time of transition, or death, the setting sun. From this point onwards, the time stops, and it is the sun that passes them. This shows that they passed out of time of the living into the time of eternity where only time can pass them. The transition starts as when the sun sets, and ever ything becomes dark thus welcoming the damp and cold of the night (â€Å"dew drew quivering and chill.†) The use of personification in the poem occurs in two instances as Dickinson takes us through the drive with death. First, she personifies Death itself into a gentleman caller because she refers to him as a ‘he,’ in stanzas 1 and 2 while the rest of the stanzas she uses ‘we’ to show that two people are together. She also uses capital D when mentioning Death thus stressing the fact that Death is a name of a gentleman, and all names of people begin with a capital letter. Secondly, Dickinson personifies the setting sun when she refers to it as a ‘he’ when she says â€Å"Or rather He passed Us.† In this case, she acknowledges the capability of the sun as a point of transition. In the

Baring the body, exploring pornography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Baring the body, exploring pornography - Essay Example For instance, it threatens the family, the well-being of a woman and the community in overall. Therefore, feminists agitate for the control of the sexually explicit images. Specifically, the group allied against porn activities in Indianapolis shares a vision of the sexuality terrain of the female victimization and degradation. None in the group offers the view of the female sexual subjectivity, joy in the sexual arena or of the female power (Duggan & Hunter, 1995). Therefore, I consider the Song of the Wind and Trees (Kaze to ki no uta) not pornographic. The emphasis on the song is on the feelings more than the actions. The show contains the â€Å"shounen-ai† or the â€Å"yaoi† materials that means ‘boy’s love.† The song covers materials whereby two very attractive boys attracted to each other and share romantic and intimate instants between the two. One of the males appears to be androgynous or feminine, which is a standard material in the shoujo anime. They are not viewed being immoral at all. It is rather a piece of art that represent the romantic nature of gay rather than porn (Welker,

Setting Up A Moral System Essay Example for Free

Setting Up A Moral System Essay The installation of a moral system is vital in every society. Yet, every moral system must deal with the major conflicting general moral issues: Consequentialism versus Non-consequentialism; Self versus Other-Interestedness; Act Utilitarianism versus Rule Utilitarianism; and Emotion versus reason. When all four areas are combined and examined there are conflicting views that must be resolved. First of all, there is the issue of Consequentialism and Non-consequentialism. Consequentialism is best described by utilitarianism, where decisions are based on the consequences of the outcome of the decision made. On the other hand, non-consequentialism is best described as an ethical theory that is based not on the consequences of the action, but on some higher moral standard that is placed upon them. Examples of non-consequentialism are Kants Duty Ethics and Divine Command Theory. The conflict between the two is whether to do what is best according to the outcome or follow what one feels as the higher moral standard would require them to adhere to. Personally, I would resolve this area by choosing the consequentialist belief as my tool for judgement because I feel that people need to think about the consequences of their actions because if they dont then it will cause havoc in the society. Thus, I feel that consequentialism is the proper solution in this area. Secondly, there is the conflict between Self versus Other-Interestedness. The concept of self is best described as being selfish and only caring about oneself without worrying about what might happen to others. While the concept of other-interestedness is basically putting the needs of everyone else over your own (this is similar to utilitarianism). The big conflict is that most people are going to choose themselves first, but if this were a perfect society the people would worry about everyone first. If people would think about it, then they figure it out that they are included in everyone. Therefore, in this area I would solve the problem by choosing the theory of other-interestedness. Next, there is the issue of the act utilitarianism versus the rule utilitarianism. The act approach to utilitarianism is that a person should perform acts that will bring about the greatest good for the greatest number. On the other hand, the rule approach to utilitarianism is that people establish and follow rules which will bring about the greatest good for the greatest number. The major conflicting moral issue is whether or not there is freedom involved in the decision making process. Act utilitarianism gives unlimited freedom, while rule utilitarianism gives virtually no freedom, but rule utilitarianism gives structure and stability to the society. The best way to solve this area would be to have rule utilitarianism and act utilitarianism combined so that you have rules to give some structure to society but have the ability for the people to be allowed to express their individual freedoms in the society. Thus, I feel that a combination of the two is the best way solve this area of the moral system. Finally, there is the issue between reason and emotion. Reason is described as thinking about what the outcome of the decision would be, then making the decision. The theory of emotion is reacting to ones emotions without thinking about the possible outcome of the situation. In this situation one has to side with reason because if not the society would have people reacting to their emotions all the time which could chaos and would not fit into a utopian society. All of these four areas combined would help in establish an upright and proper moral system when applied correctly. I feel that the decisions that I made earlier in this essay are the proper ones needed for a good moral system.

Closure of a large amount of mental hospitals

Closure of a large amount of mental hospitals There are many reasons as to why such a large amount of mental hospitals closed down, but to explore the reasons why they closed, we must look at the rise of the large institutions between the 19th century and the 1980s to understand its demise, why so many were built and why, for a small time period, they were successful. The mental hospital is defined as a hospital for the care and treatment of patients affected with acute or chronic mental illness. Between the 19th century and the 1980s, the mental hospital has been defined as the carer for mental illness. But after this golden age of care for mental illness, it has become a victim of decareration ever since leading to a decrease in mental hospitals and its admissions, but why? The discharge of a patient was once known as a good thing as it symbolised the success of that hospital through moral treatment (later replaced by psychiatric treatment) but even before this there was a much harsher system with the use of chains and straightjackets being the norm. As in the case of King George III who himself suffered from mental illness; patients were not seen as human beings, he was encaged, starved and beaten. The philosophy that therefore developed was the goal of a cure, to treat the patient in a therapeutic environment, To remove the patient from the midst of those circumstances under which insanity has been produced must be the first aim of treatmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦An entire change in the surroundings will sometimes of itself lead to recovery (Bean and Mounser 1993, 4 quoting Busfield, 1986) The mental hospital really began in Victorian times; hospitals were intentionally structured to be different from ordinary hospitals in terms of therapy, structure and location. (Rogers and Pilgrim 2010, 190). As where the general hospitals in the vicinity of a highly populated area, a mental hospital would have been deliberately built in a place that is not so populated. The mental hospital (or asylum as it was once known) is seen as a conventional and humane way with dealing with the mentally ill; one of the first legal acts to recognise this was the Lunacy Act of 1845 which made local counties build asylums and gave the authority to detain lunatics, idiots and persons of unsound mind. (Rogers and Pilgrim 2010, 190). It was enforced and regulated by the Lunacy Commission. At the time the only place for the mentally ill to go to were workhouses and private madhouses. As mentioned before this moral treatment was in reaction of the harsh treatment normally given. One of the first inst itutions to use moral treatment was the York Retreat, The York Retreat was opened in 1796 by the English Quaker community as a reaction against the harsh treatment used by other asylums. The belief at the time was that the mad were wild beasts. The retreat was opened from The consciousness felt by a small group of citizens of an overwhelming social evil in their midst (Rogers and Pilgrim 2010,198 quoting Jones 1960:40), although state-run asylums did not pick up this form of treatment for a while. Andrew Scull, an American sociologist argued that the mass amount of people detained in asylums was a product of urbanization, industrialisation and professional forces during the first half of the 19th century and that detainment in asylums was a way to control social deviance.(Rogers and Pilgrim 2010,190) The increase in wage labour meant that services were not good enough to deal with this new form of social deviance meaning that the mentally ill could not be looked after by the family or local community, and around this time the stigma of how mental illness was a loss of humanity changed to the loss of self -control among the public. Meanwhile the French sociologist Michel Foucault sees that this new found market economy promotes rationality, surveillance and discipline'(Rogers and Pilgrim 2010,190) But with this change of direction in the treatment of the mentally ill, many institutions began to fill up with patients rapidly overfilling local magistrates estimates, which lead to several extensions to a mental hospital. An example of this is the Conley Hatch mental hospital in London which opened in 1851 and shut down in 1993 and at its peak it held 3,500 patients. Many institutions promoted that they had the cure for mental illness, which led to a great surge in patients. In 1998, Gittens produced research into a mental hospital in Essex and followed the lives of staff and patients in the hospital and found many contradictions about mental hospitals. He found In relation to women patients it is clear for example that the hospital, based as it was on men-only and women-only wards constituted a women-only space and true asylum in a social context in which there was little such space in external community life (Rogers and Pilgrim 2010, 191) He also found that there needs to be a restriction against outside forces such as social, economic and political conditions as they affect peoples abilities to deal with such material. As mentioned, its primary ideals were to treat patients with moral treatment yet this was forgotten about early on in its life, with the exaggerated numbers which local magistrates didnt expect and such serious illnesses, political bodies were urging to keep costs down. Legal acts such as The Mental Treatment Act 1930 which allowed voluntary admissions to mental hospitals, it was also the act that got rid of the term asylum, and many mental hospitals found that it was not necessary to keep voluntary patients institutionalised. This led to a slight decrease in patients but it wasnt until the 1950s that its fall became apparent. Goffman (Rogers and Pilgrim 2010, 192) found that there were four types of institutions because of this: Nursing homes, where the incapable are cared for Sanatoriums for those who have who have an unwanted threat to the community. Prisons, where the welfare of the inmate is not of paramount importance Monasteries and convents for those who volunteer to be away from the world In 1948 the NHS was created, this led to all mental institutions being free for everyone, psychiatrists wanted this to broaden their field of study. The Mental Health Act of 1959 aimed to provide informal treatment for mentally ill patients with the possibility of detaining a patient against his/her will One of the starting points of the crisis was in 1961, Enoch Powell, the minster of Health at the time, believed that mental hospitals were doomed institutions, so in 1961 he drafted The Hospital Plan where he planned to build thousands more hospitals and abolish certain mental institutes. The discharge of patients had become the policy of the demise of the asylum, subsequently the Community care blue book was published which offered an alternative system to the mental hospital; where mentally ill patients would see a specialist for an appointment just like a regular doctor, the patient could then carry on with their lives and live at home. The patient could live a fairly regular life and would stop the segregation from normal society; it would entail the patient receiving treatment in a non-asylum setting such as in a district general hospital psychiatric unit. However it is argued that it is society that made the patient mentally ill in the first place, within the institutions there is a guaranteed market for experts services where specialists could hone their skills, yet the asylum grew out of a need to establish a social order. The asylum had many problems as Goffman points out, he believes in the mortification of self when being admitted to a mental hospital, with self being defined as being constructed by the pattern of social control which exists in an institution.(Rogers and Pilgrim 2010,192) The persons past identity is completely stripped, their movement is restricted, hospital issue clothes are given and any personal belongings are taken away, they are then obliged to disown their former selves through confessions with the staff, there is no such thing as privacy and freedom of choice is extremely limited with all activities on a schedule. Wings (1962) research shows that feelings of withdrawal and apathy in patients was caused by their length of stay in a ward and the lack of a stimulating environment, good medical leadership is not enough to reduce these feelings in patients, as he says it is unlikely that the functions of am energetic reformer can be built in to the social structure of an institution. As John Connolly points out once confined, the very confinement is admitted as the strongest of all proofs that man must be mad. by 1990 the average asylum held 961 compared to in 1930 which held 1221. Once the asylum had reached its peak size, it realised that the patient was losing their individuality through being guided by the institutions rules; this resulted in a problematized re-entry into society. Originally the asylums were urged to be built by humanitarians, today the opposite is true, community care is now seen to be therapeutic and humanitarian, their return to the community legitimised community care as it deflected attention away from the demise of state responsibility for the seriously mentally ill and the current crisis of abandonment. (Bean and Mounser 1993, 8) During the time where many large institutions were on the brink of collapse Martin (1985) conducted research into what they were failing, he found that many of the failures were with the nursing staff whom participated in inhumane, brutal and threatening behaviour and committed mass negligence on their patients. He asked two questions. How do trained carers become to behave contrary to professional standards? And how have hospitals been arranged in such a way that abuse and neglect have not been prevented? To answer he found 6 points: Large institutions were situated outside mass populated areas meaning they were cut off from the community Wards were isolated from each other, and were almost their own little world Un trained and un experienced staff were left to deal will large amounts of unruly patients, The worst wards were the ones rarely visited by a specialist, leaving the junior staff to do the work leading to a lack of leadership There was a lack of staff development through staff training courses etc There was a huge lack of privacy for the patients (Rogers and Pilgrim 2010, 194) These factors led scholars to doubt that the large asylums could be put right and doubted that they could be reformed. They believe that there is a huge corruption of care. Ultimately every single patient will leave a mental institute whether they are ready to return into society or not and the goal is to cease contact with the hospital afterwards, scholars believe that the hospital, now in a community based system, has less of an importance it once had and is only one institution among others. The community based system is where the patient makes their first and last contact with treatment, they will enter the hospital for a short time and continue their treatment in the community as their treatment does not require hospital admission. This process is known as deinstitutionalisation as patients will not be treated by hospital based treatment and instead will be by community based psychiatrists. However this is not new, in the old system the patient may have made his/her first contact with a G.P and then sent to a mental hospital for treatment, although this has not changed there are now community psychiatric teams to send the patient to the hospital an d to treat them inside and outside the hospital, The old system had a sole focus on the hospital, today it no longer directs, controls nor dictates the pace of treatment or care (Rogers and Pilgrim 2010, 196) There is a whole array of reasons discussed as to the demise of mental hospitals, one reason is the pharmalogical revolution which suggests that the advances in medical treatments, such as tranquilizers let patients be discharged in mass numbers, the introduction of chlorpromazine in 1952 made it easier to manage disturbed behaviour, and therefore easier to open wards that had been locked, to engage patients in social activities, and to discharge some of them into the community Rogers and Pilgrim 2010,197 quoting Gelder et al 2001,769) Scull blames economic determinism and decareceation for this massive decline in the use of mental hospitals, he believes that it was state sponsored policy of closing down asylums, with the emergence of the welfare state, segrative control mechanisms became too expensive. Inflation contributed by unpaid patient labour and cost of employees, ex-patients also required care which had considerable costs, community care was the cheaper option. Another reason would be the shift of focus from chronic conditions to acute conditions such as depression and anxiety which has been described as the common cold for mental health specialists, these acute conditions were once treated by mental hospitals but it has shifted to the GP and is easily treated by them meaning that the majority of people with mental heath problems never seek specialist treatment. Additionally, as mentioned before community care played a significant role in the downfall of asylums, many specialists found that a change of sce nery was very beneficial to the patient, even patients with long-term chronic illnesses can return to society and live in community residences with good results making the mental hospital useful for a short period yet quickly and easily disposed of at point of departure; no longer serving any purpose nor use to the ex-patient. However many studies have found that many psychiatric wards are non-therapeutic and that they share the same problems as they did in the Victorian era, mainly because , according to Goffman, they act as a repair garage; a problem is brought in, fixed and then sent out. Only medication is given, total care is not. A study conducted by Braginsky, Braginsky and Ring (1973) found that the minor patients all wanted to go home, while the more serious cases had no interest in leaving and instead maximised their comforts in the hospital as theyd rather stay in the hospital than become a victim of poverty outside . The focus has also shifted to the cause and solution of mental health, epidemiology (the study of patterns of health and illness in public health) and treatment were separated in the era of the mental hospital, today they are much closer, the hospital has disappeared leaving the attention to the inequalities in mental health prevention and positive mental health To conclude, the mental hospital has made leaps and bounds in the field of mental health with its aim to understand mental health scientifically and tried to cure mental illness, even though that was deemed impossible. Its failure was mainly due to costs and the shift of attention to other fields of treatment. Yet two types of institution has been created due to this, community mental health centres and district general hospital units both modern in their treatment. Although there are still many similarities, high risk patients are still held against their will. Overall the care is much more professional, information is available over the internet, telephone or even the television, but more importantly there is a focus on the patients life and freedom, many may argue that the government still no longer offers a complete care system, but its a start.